The prohibition of recreational hunting of wild ungulates in Spanish National Parks: Challenges and opportunities.

A new regulation has led to the prohibition of recreational hunting on estates located within Spanish National Parks (NPs). Before the ban, eleven NPs in Spain had already reported negative ecological consequences associated with high densities of wild ungulates. The new situation that has occurred after the ban signifies that policies with which to control populations of wild ungulates in NPs, most of which do not have a sufficient natural capacity to regulate populations, depend exclusively on the parks' authorities. The banning of recreational hunting implies a series of social, ecological, economic and logistic challenges. The control of wild ungulate populations in NPs requires: i) the legal basis for culling; ii) social acceptance as regards removing animals and the extractive procedures employed in NPs; iii) the long-term monitoring of wild ungulates and the damages that they cause, and iv) sufficient financial and human resources. A more integrated management and policy plan is, therefore, required, which should be supported by two pillars: i) the sustainability of natural resources and the conservation of functional environments, and ii) providing society with explanations regarding the need to manage wild ungulates. In order to bridge the potential gap between these key pillars, it is important to involve stakeholders in the decision-making processes concerning wild ungulate management. The forthcoming changes in Spanish NPs provide a promising opportunity to make a substantial improvement to wild ungulate management in these protected areas. This management approach could, moreover, serve as an example and be transferred to other protected spaces.

The contribution of citizen science in the surveillance of wildlife and related arthropods.

Environmental and anthropogenic factors may significantly affect the diffusion of wild animals, enhancing the interface of human­wildlife interactions and driving the spread of pathogens and vector-borne diseases between animals and humans. However, in the last decade, the involvement of citizens in scientific research (the so-called citizen science approach, henceforth abbreviated as CS) provided a network of large-scale and cost-effective surveillance programmes of wildlife populations and their related arthropod species. Therefore, this review aims to illustrate different methods and tools used in CS studies, by arguing the main advantages and considering the limitations of this approach. The CS approach has proven to be an effective method for establishing density and distribution of several wild animal species, in urban, peri-urban and rural environments, as well a source of information regarding vector­host associations between arthropods and wildlife. Extensive efforts are recommended to motivate citizens to be involved in scientific projects to improve both their and our knowledge of the ecology and diseases of wildlife. Following the One Health paradigm, collaborative and multidisciplinary models for the surveillance of wildlife and related arthropod species should be further developed by harnessing the potentiality of the CS approach.

Large scale spatio-temporal modelling of risk factors associated with tuberculosis exposure at the wildlife-livestock interface.

The management of animal tuberculosis (TB) is a priority for European Union animal health authorities. However, and despite all the efforts made to date, a significant part of Spain has as yet been unable to obtain the officially tuberculosis-free (OTF) status. Information regarding wildlife disease status is usually scarce, signifying that the role played by wildlife is usually ignored or poorly assessed in large-scale TB risk factor studies. The National Wildlife Health Surveillance Plan in Spain now provides information on infection rates in wildlife reservoirs at a national level, but there are limitations as regards the sample size, the spatio-temporal distribution of the samples, and the lack of homogeneity of the diagnostic techniques employed. The objective of the study described herein was, therefore, to employ a Bayesian approach with the intention of identifying the risk factors associated with four TB rates in cattle: prevalence, incidence, maintenance and persistence in Spain during the period 2014-2019. The modeling approach included highly informative spatio-temporal latent effects with which to control the limitations of the data. Variation partitioning procedures were carried out, and the pure effect of each factor was mapped in order to identify the most relevant factors associated with TB dynamics in cattle in each region. This made it possible to disclose that the movement of cattle, particularly from counties with herd incidence > 1%, was the main driver of the TB dynamics in cattle. The abundance of herds bred for bullfighting was retained in all four models, but had less weight than the movements. After accounting for farm-related factors, the TB prevalence in wild boar was retained in all the models and was significantly related to incidence, maintenance and persistence. With regard to the incidence, variation partitioning revealed that wildlife was the most explicative factor, thus suggesting that it plays a role in the introduction of the pathogen into uninfected herds, and consequently highlighting its importance in breakdowns. These results show, for the first time on a national scale, that wild ungulates play a relevant role in the spatio-temporal variability of TB in cattle, particularly as regards their disease status. Moreover, the spatial representation of the pure effect of each factor made it possible to identify which factors are driving the disease dynamics in each region, thus showing that it is a valuable tool with which to focus efforts towards achieving the OTF status.

Assessing trends in population size of three unmarked species: A comparison of a multi-species N-mixture model and random encounter models.

Estimation of changes in abundances and densities is essential for the research, management, and conservation of animal populations. Recently, technological advances have facilitated the surveillance of animal populations through the adoption of passive sensors, such as camera traps (CT). Several methods, including the random encounter model (REM), have been developed for estimating densities of unmarked populations but require additional information. Hierarchical abundance models, such as the N-mixture model (NMM), can estimate abundances without performing additional fieldwork but do not explicitly estimate the area effectively sampled. This obscures the interpretation of its densities and requires its users to focus on relative measures of abundance instead. Hence, the main objective of our study is to evaluate if REM and NMM yield consistent results qualitatively. Therefore, we compare relative trends: (i) between species, (ii) between years and (iii) across years obtained from annual density/abundance estimates of three species (fox, wild boar and red deer) in central Spain monitored by a camera trapping network for five consecutive winter periods. We reveal that NMM and REM provided density estimates in the same order of magnitude for wild boar, but not for foxes and red deer. Assuming a Poisson detection process in the NMM was important to control for inflation of abundance estimates for frequently detected species. Both methods consistently ranked density/abundance across species (between species trend), but did not always agree on relative ranks of yearly estimates within a single population (between years trend), nor on its linear population trends across years (across years trend). Our results suggest that relative trends are generally consistent when the range of variability is large, but can become inconsistent when the range of variability is smaller.

The method matters. A comparative study of biologging and camera traps as data sources with which to describe wildlife habitat selection.

Habitat use is a virtually universal activity among animals and is highly relevant as regards designing wildlife management and conservation actions. This has led to the development of a great variety of methods to study it, of which resource selection functions combined with biologging-derived data (RSF) is the most widely used for this purpose. However this approach has some constraints, such as its invasiveness and high costs. Analytical approaches taking into consideration imperfect detection coupled with camera trap data (IDM) have, therefore, emerged as a non-invasive cost-effective alternative. However, despite the fact that both approaches (RSF and IDM) have been used in habitat selection studies, they should also be comparatively assessed. The objective of this work is consequently to assess them from two perspectives: explanatory and predictive. This has been done by analyzing data obtained from camera traps (60 sampling sites) and biologging (17 animals monitored: 7 red deer Cervus elaphus, 6 fallow deer Dama dama and 4 wild boar Sus scrofa) in the same periods using IDM and RSF, respectively, in Doñana National Park (southern Spain) in order to explain and predict habitat use patterns for three studied species. Our results showed discrepancies between the two approaches, as they identified different predictors as being the most relevant to determine species intensity of use, and they predicted spatial patterns of habitat use with a contrasted level of concordance, depending on species and scale. Given these results and the characteristics of each approach, we suggested that although partly comparable interpretations can be obtained with both approaches, they are not equivalent but rather complementary. The combination of data from biologging and camera traps would, therefore, appear to be suitable for the development of an analytical framework with which to describe and characterise the habitat use processes of wildlife.

Occurrence and limited zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Balantioides coli infections in free-ranging and farmed wild ungulates in Spain.

Little information is currently available on the occurrence and molecular diversity of the enteric protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Balantioides coli in wild ungulates and the role of these host species as potential sources of environmental contamination and consequent human infections. The presence of these three pathogens was investigated in eight wild ungulate species present in Spain (genera Ammotragus, Capra, Capreolus, Cervus, Dama, Ovis, Rupicapra, and Sus) by molecular methods. Faecal samples were retrospectively collected from free-ranging (n = 1058) and farmed (n = 324) wild ungulates from the five Spanish bioregions. Overall infection rates were 3.0% (42/1382; 95% CI: 2.1-3.9%) for Cryptosporidium spp., 5.4% (74/1382; 95% CI: 4.2-6.5%) for G. duodenalis, and 0.7% (9/1382; 95% CI: 0.3-1.2%) for B. coli. Cryptosporidium infection was detected in roe deer (7.5%), wild boar (7.0%) and red deer (1.5%), and G. duodenalis in southern chamois (12.9%), mouflon (10.0%), Iberian wild goat (9.0%), roe deer (7.5%), wild boar (5.6%), fallow deer (5.2%) and red deer (3.8%). Balantioides coli was only detected in wild boar (2.5%, 9/359). Sequence analyses revealed the presence of six distinct Cryptosporidium species: C. ryanae in red deer, roe deer, and wild boar; C. parvum in red deer and wild boar; C. ubiquitum in roe deer; C. scrofarum in wild boar; C. canis in roe deer; and C. suis in red deer. Zoonotic assemblages A and B were detected in wild boar and red deer, respectively. Ungulate-adapted assemblage E was identified in mouflon, red deer, and southern chamois. Attempts to genotype samples positive for B. coli failed. Sporadic infections by canine- or swine-adapted species may be indicative of potential cross-species transmission, although spurious infections cannot be ruled out. Molecular evidence gathered is consistent with parasite mild infections and limited environmental contamination with (oo)cysts. Free-ranging wild ungulate species would not presumably play a significant role as source of human infections by these pathogens. Wild ruminants do not seem to be susceptible hosts for B. coli.

Co-exposure to pathogens in wild ungulates from Doñana National Park, South Spain.

Multiple infections or co-exposure to pathogens should be considered systematically in wildlife to better understand the ecology and evolution of host-pathogen relationships, so as to better determine the potential use of multiple pathogens as indicators to guide health management. We describe the pattern of co-exposure to several pathogens (i.e. simultaneous positive diagnosis to pathogens in an individual considering Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex lesions, and the presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, bluetongue virus, and hepatitis E virus) and assessed their main drivers in the wild ungulate community from Doñana National Park (red deer, fallow deer, and wild boar) for a 13-years longitudinal study. The lower-than-expected frequency of co-exposure registered in all species was consistent with non-mutually exclusive hypotheses (e.g. antagonism or disease-related mortality), which requires further investigation. The habitat generalist species (red deer and wild boar) were exposed to a greater diversity of pathogens (frequency of co-exposure around 50%) and/or risk factors than fallow deer (25.0% ± CI95% 4.9). Positive relationships between pathogens were evidenced, which may be explained by common risk factors favouring exposure. The specific combination of pathogens in individuals was mainly driven by different groups of factors (individual, environmental, stochastic, and populational), as well as its interaction, defining a complex eco-epidemiological landscape. To deepen into the main determinants and consequences of co-infections in a complex assemblage of wild hosts, and at the interface with humans and livestock, there also is needed to expand the range of pathogens and compare diverse assemblages of hosts under different environmental and management circumstances.

Antibody isotype epitope mapping of SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD protein: Targets for COVID-19 symptomatology and disease control.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) still poses a challenge for biomedicine and public health. To advance the development of effective diagnostic, prognostic, and preventive interventions, our study focused on high-throughput antibody binding epitope mapping of the SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD protein by IgA, IgM and IgG antibodies in saliva and sera of different cohorts from healthy uninfected individuals to SARS-CoV-2-infected unvaccinated and vaccinated asymptomatic, recovered, nonsevere, and severe patients. Identified candidate diagnostic (455-LFRKSNLKPFERD-467), prognostic (395-VYADSFVIRGDEV-407-C-KLH, 332-ITNLCPFGEV-342-C-KLH, 352-AWNRKRI-358-C-KLH, 524-VCGPKKSTNLVKN-536-KLH), and protective (MKLLE-487-NCYFPLQSYGFQPTNGVG-504-GGGGS-446-GGNYNYLYRLFRKSNLKPFERD-467) epitopes were validated with sera from prevaccine and postvaccine cohorts. The results identified neutralizing epitopes and support that antibody recognition of linear B-cell epitopes in RBD protein is associated with antibody isotype and disease symptomatology. The findings in asymptomatic individuals suggest a role for anti-RBD antibodies in the protective response against SARS-CoV-2. The possibility of translating results into diagnostic interventions for the early diagnosis of asymptomatic individuals and prognosis of disease severity provides new tools for COVID-19 surveillance and evaluation of risks in hospitalized patients. These results, together with other approaches, may contribute to the development of new vaccines for the control of COVID-19 and other coronavirus-related diseases using a quantum vaccinomics approach through the combination of protective epitopes.

Low impact of tuberculosis severity on wild boar body condition.

Body condition (BC), is a measure to assess the health status of domestic and wild animals. When food resources are abundant, a decrease in BC may indicate an increase in the energetic expenditure due to the effects of growth, reproduction, or disease. BC impoverishment is one of the most common clinical effects of diseases progressing chronically, such as animal tuberculosis (TB) caused by bacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. The Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa) is the main wild TB reservoir in the Mediterranean basin. The specific aims of this work were to assess the relationship between sex, age and TB severity altogether on the BC of wild boar. For this purpose, we used the kidney fat index (KFI), to assess the impact of TB progression on the BC of 1372 hunter-harvested free-ranging wild boar in seven populations in southern Spain. Surprisingly, TB had only slight effects on wild boar BC and individuals exhibiting severe TB showed greater BC than TB-free individuals. The age (adults had greater BC than juveniles) and sex (females had greater BC than males) were the main BC determinants in wild boar. Sampling population and season explained more BC variability than individual factors, suggesting that other external factors might play an important role in the BC, and probably on the impact of the disease on this wild reservoir. The low impact of TB on wild boar BC suggests that individuals with severe TB and good BC represent potential long-term super-shedders of this pathogen.

A study of viral pathogens in bat species in the Iberian Peninsula: identification of new coronavirus genetic variants.

Bats have long been associated with multiple pathogens, including viruses affecting humans such as henipaviruses, filoviruses, bunyaviruses and coronaviruses. The alpha and beta coronaviruses genera can infect most mammalian species. Among them, betacoronavirus SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, which have caused the three major pandemics in the last two decades, have been proposed to originate in bats. In this study, 194 oral swabs from 22 bats species sampled in 19 locations of the Iberian Peninsula were analysed and characterized by three different PCR tests (coronavirus generic real-time RT-PCR, multiplex conventional PCR, and SARS-CoV-2 specific real-time RT-PCR) to detect bat coronaviruses. Screening with coronavirus generic PCR showed 102 positives out of 194 oral swabs analysed. Then, metabarcoding with multiplex PCR amplified 15 positive samples. Most of the coronaviruses detected in this study belong to alphacoronavirus (α-CoV) genus, with multiple alphacoronaviruses identified by up to five different genetic variants coexisting in the same bat. One of the positive samples identified in a Miniopterus schreibersii bat positive for the generic coronavirus PCR and the specific SARS-CoV-2 PCR was classified as betacoronavirus (-CoV) through phylogenetic analysis. These results support the rapid evolution of coronaviruses to generate new genomic potentially pathogenic variants likely through co-infection and recombination.

Complementary roles of wild boar and red deer to animal tuberculosis maintenance in multi-host communities.

The contribution of wildlife species to pathogen maintenance in multi-host communities has seldom been quantified. To assess the relative contribution of the main wildlife hosts of animal tuberculosis (TB) to its maintenance, we estimated the basic reproduction number (R0) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in wild boar and red deer at 29 sites in the Iberian Peninsula. Host abundance and true TB prevalence were estimated for each species at each site by sampling from distributions incorporating the uncertainty in the proportion of the population harvested each year, sensitivity, and specificity of the diagnostic methods, while excretion of mycobacteria was estimated using site-occupancy models. The distributions of these parameters were then used to estimate, at each site, the R0,wild boar (range 0.1 - 55.9, average 8.7, standard deviation 11.8), and the R0,red deer (0.1 - 18.9, 2.2, 3.9). Animal TB is maintained in epidemiological scenarios ranging from any single species acting as a maintenance host (the wild boar in 18 sites and the red deer in 5), to facultative multi-host disease (6 sites). The prevalence of TB in the red deer is likely an important driver of the epidemiology in multi-host communities. The wild boar was the main maintenance host of TB in most of the study sites and could have an epidemiological role linking the wildlife multi-host community and livestock.

Zoonotic Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in free-ranging and farmed wild ungulates in Spain.

Microsporidia comprises a diverse group of obligate, intracellular, and spore-forming parasites that infect a wide range of animals. Among them, Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most frequently reported species in humans and other mammals and birds. Data on the epidemiology of E. bieneusi in wildlife are limited. Hence, E. bieneusi was investigated in eight wild ungulate species present in Spain (genera Ammotragus, Capra, Capreolus, Cervus, Dama, Ovis, Rupicapra, and Sus) by molecular methods. Faecal samples were collected from free-ranging (n = 1058) and farmed (n = 324) wild ungulates from five Spanish bioregions. The parasite was detected only in red deer (10.4%, 68/653) and wild boar (0.8%, 3/359). Enterocytozoon bieneusi infections were more common in farmed (19.4%, 63/324) than in wild (1.5%, 5/329) red deer. A total of 11 genotypes were identified in red deer, eight known (BEB6, BEB17, EbCar2, HLJD-V, MWC_d1, S5, Type IV, and Wildboar3) and three novel (DeerSpEb1, DeerSpEb2, and DeerSpEb3) genotypes. Mixed genotype infections were detected in 15.9% of farmed red deer. Two genotypes were identified in wild boar, a known (Wildboar3) and a novel (WildboarSpEb1) genotypes. All genotypes identified belonged to E. bieneusi zoonotic Groups 1 and 2. This study provides the most comprehensive epidemiological study of E. bieneusi in Spanish ungulates to date, representing the first evidence of the parasite in wild red deer populations worldwide. Spanish wild boars and red deer are reservoir of zoonotic genotypes of E. bieneusi and might play an underestimated role in the transmission of this microsporidian species to humans and other animals.

The fungal-related intracellular parasite Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a worldwide public health and veterinary problem. Here we demonstrated that it was present in wild boar, and wild and farmed red deer in Spain, with genotypes potentially capable of infecting humans, posing a public health risk.

Occupational Traffic Accidents among Teachers in Spain.

Occupational traffic accidents are a leading cause of injuries or deaths among workers. Teachers in Spain are especially concerned about the problem of commuting due to their particular labor conditions. Multiple work-related factors are associated with the risk and severity of occupational traffic-related motor vehicle crashes. The objective of this research is to analyze the influence of the variables associated with the severity of occupational traffic accidents among teachers in Spain. A logistic regression model was used for the current study. The odds ratio (OR) and confidence interval (CI) were calculated for the injured worker on a sample of 20,190 occupational traffic accidents suffered by teachers. The results showed that women, Spanish nationality, younger than 55 years, and those driving a car were more likely to suffer a light crash. In contrast, men, foreign nationalities, older than 55 years, and those riding a motorbike were more likely to suffer a serious crash. Based on these findings, motor vehicle safety training could be designed and adapted to the riskiest profiles. Additionally, effective mobility plans for commuting could help reduce work-related traffic accidents.

Survey of Culicoides-borne bluetongue and Schmallenberg viruses at the wildlife-livestock interface in Doñana National Park (Spain).

A cross-sectional study was carried out to assess the circulation of bluetongue virus (BTV) and Schmallenberg virus (SBV) within the wild and domestic ungulate host community in Doñana National Park (southwestern Spain). A total of 440 animals, including 138 cattle, 102 red deer (Cervus elaphus), 101 fallow deer (Dama dama) and 99 wild boar (Sus scrofa), were sampled in 2015 during the seasonal peak of Culicoides spp. (summer-autumn). Serum and spleen samples were analysed to detect exposure (using commercial blocking ELISAs) and infection (by RT-PCR), respectively, to BTV and SBV. Cattle were not tested by BTV-bELISA because all were previously vaccinated against BTV serotypes 1 and 4. High BTV seroprevalences were found in red deer (97.0%) and fallow deer (64.7%). Antibodies against SBV were detected in 37.0% of cattle, 16.8% of red deer, 23.5% of fallow deer and 2.0% of wild boar. Thirty-eight of the 203 deer (18.7%; 17 red deer and 21 fallow deer) were co-exposed to both viral agents. BTV-4 RNA was confirmed in four red deer and two fallow deer. SBV RNA was found in two fallow deer. Co-infections were not detected. Our results indicate high exposure, widespread distribution and active circulation of BTV and SBV in the ruminant community in the study area. We provide additional evidence for the potential role of wild cervids as reservoirs of these Culicoides-borne viruses in two different epidemiological scenarios: with vaccination (BTV) and without vaccination (SBV) of sympatric livestock. This study highlights the importance of wildlife surveillance, particularly of cervid species, for the proper execution of control programmes of Culicoides-borne diseases in extensively reared livestock.

Permeability of artificial barriers (fences) for wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Mediterranean mixed landscapes.

BACKGROUND: Fences are one of the most widespread manmade features in nature, constituting an artificial limitation to the movement of wildlife. To date, their effects on wildlife behavior have been understudied but this knowledge is required to design effective management procedures. Using 21 GPS-monitored wild boar, we evaluated the permeability of different types of fences and described temporal patterns and spatial hotspots for crossing events. A fence's permeability was inferred by the crossing success, i.e., the number of times that animals crossed a barrier vs the number of times they did not cross. The vulnerability of fences at watercourses was explored by assessing whether the frequency of crossings was higher around watercourse intersections than expected by chance. RESULTS: Well-maintained big game proof fences were the most effective in reducing successful wild boar crossings; they were, on average, 30% more efficient than livestock type fences. Crossing success was higher for males than females and during the food shortage period than in the food abundance period. The frequency of crossings around watercourses was higher than expected by chance, especially in moderately and well-maintained big game proof type fences. CONCLUSION: While no fence type was 100% wild boar proof, well-maintained big game proof fences substantially constrained the movement of boar. However, they are vulnerable around watercourses. Managing the conflicts in which this species is involved, such as shared infections and agricultural damage, would require fences that are even more effective than the ones analyzed here, ideally in conjunction with other preventive actions. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization and management of interaction risks between livestock and wild ungulates on outdoor pig farms in Spain.

BACKGROUND: To control the transmission of relevant shared diseases, such as animal tuberculosis (TB) and African swine fever (ASF), it is essential to reduce the risk of interaction between livestock and wild ungulates. In Eastern and Central Europe, the current spread of ASF virus affecting wild boar and domestic pigs (especially those raised outdoors and/or in backyards) has devastated the pig sector in affected regions and is seriously threatening other exporting countries. Here, we evaluated the risk of wildlife-livestock interactions on 45 outdoor pig farms in Spain, the second largest pork producer in the EU and then proposed biosecurity-related actions. An integrated, systematic wildlife risk mitigation protocol based on interviews, questionnaires and field audits was developed and applied on each farm. RESULTS: Most of the interaction risk points were associated with water sources (84.2%; 701/832), mainly springs and ponds, which accounted for almost all the specific points with high or very high risk scores. The risk of interaction at feeding points (6.9%; 57/832) and those associated with facilities for livestock and/or game management (8.9%; 74/832) were rated as low and very low risk, respectively. Wild boar were present and hunted on 69% of the farms. Supplementary feeding for wild ungulate species (mainly wild boar) was provided on almost half (48.9%; 22/45) the surveyed farms. Risk mitigation actions were categorised to target water access, waterers, food, other livestock species, grazing, wildlife, and offal disposal. Of the total number of actions (n = 2016), 82.7% were identified as priority actions while 17.3% represented alternative options which were identified less cost-effective. On average, 37.1 (median: 32; range 14-113) action proposals per study farm were made and 2.0 (median: 1; range 0-4) per risk point. The mean estimated cost of implementing the proposed priority actions was 14,780 €/farm (25.7 €/hectare and 799.4 €/risk point). CONCLUSIONS: This study expands the knowledge of interaction risks between domestic pigs and wild ungulates in outdoor pig farming systems and highlights the importance of considering local risks and management practices when designing and prioritising adapted wildlife risk mitigation and biosecurity actions. This practical and feasible protocol developed for Mediterranean ecosystems is easily transferable to professionals and can be adapted to extensive (outdoor) production or epidemiological systems in other European regions.

A survey of shared pathogens at the domestic-wild ruminants' interface in Doñana National Park (Spain).

A cross-sectional study was carried out to evaluate shared pathogens that can be transmitted by close or non-close contact at the domestic-wild ruminants' interface. During summer-autumn 2015, a total of 138 cattle and 203 wild ruminants (red deer, Cervus elaphus, and fallow deer, Dama dama) were sampled in Doñana National Park (DNP, south-western Spain), a Mediterranean ecosystem well known for the interaction network occurring in the ungulate host community. Pestiviruses, bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV; Bovine orthopneumovirus), bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1; Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) were assessed using serological, microbiological and molecular techniques. The overall seroprevalence against viruses in cattle was 2.2% for pestiviruses, 11.6% for BRSV and 27.5% for BoHV-1. No virus-specific antibodies were found in wildlife. MTC incidence in cattle was 15.9%, and MTC seroprevalence in wild ruminants was 14.3%. The same Mycobacterium bovis spoligotypes (SB1232, SB1230 and SB1610) were identified in cattle, red deer and fallow deer. The serological results for the selected respiratory viruses suggest epidemiological cycles only in cattle. Surveillance efforts in multi-host epidemiological scenarios are needed to better drive and prioritize control strategies for shared pathogens.

Long-term determinants of the seroprevalence of the bluetongue virus in deer species in southern Spain.

Bluetongue is a vector-borne disease affecting domestic and wild ruminants, with a major socioeconomic impact. Endemic circulation of the bluetongue virus serotype 4 (BTV-4) and BTV-1 have occurred in Spain since 2004 and 2007, respectively. However, epidemiological studies have seldom been approached from a long-term perspective in wild ruminants. A total of 881 deer (red deer and fallow deer) were necropsied from 2005 to 2018 as part of the DNP health-monitoring program. Serum samples were tested for antibodies against BTV with the aims of assessing the temporal trend and to evaluate the modulating factors: individual, populational, environmental, and stochastic. Red deer displayed statistically significant higher seroprevalences of BTV (SBT; 78.6 ± 3.8%) than fallow deer (53.1 ± 4.7%). The detection of BTV-1 and BTV-4 by the serum neutralization test in calves suggested the circulation of both serotypes over the study period. For red deer, wet years together with high densities could provide suitable conditions for vector borne BTV transmission. Moreover, proximity to high suitability habitat for Culicoides, permanent pasturelands, was associated with higher SBT. The differences in the ecology and behaviour of deer species influencing the exposure to the vectors could determine the differences found in the SBT patterns. This study evidences the role that deer species may play in the maintenance of BTV, however, elucidating the epidemiological role of host in different contexts as well as the consequences of climate change on the competent vector populations and its potential effect on the dynamics of BTV infection in hosts communities deserve further research.

Differences in wild boar spatial behaviour among land uses and management scenarios in Mediterranean ecosystems.

The ubiquitous wild boar is causing diverse and growing conflicts of socio-ecological and economic relevance worldwide. For that reason, knowledge of its spatial ecology is crucial to designing effective management programmes. But this knowledge is scarce in Mediterranean areas with mixed land uses. We describe the spatial ecology and habitat selection of 41 adult wild boar monitored using GPS collars and analyse the effects of sex and the period (food shortage period, hunting season and food abundance period) under different land uses (protected areas, mixed farms and fenced hunting estates). The spatial ecology of wild boar was characterised by marked temporality, mediated by sex and the land uses in the area. The activity (ACT), daily range (DR) and home range (HR) were higher for males than females, and in mixed farms versus fenced hunting estates, while the lowest values were obtained in protected areas. These effects were more marked for ACT and DR (movement) than HR. The selection of scrublands and avoidance of woodlands was observed where drive hunt events occur (mixed farms and fenced estates), but not in the protected areas. The differences in the requirements, reproductive behaviour and, interestingly, response to disturbance according to sex may explain this dissimilar behaviour. Disturbance originated higher movement rates and the selection of sheltering land cover as a refuge during the hunting season. This information is useful for designing species monitoring and management programmes; including both preventive and reactive actions in response to events such as outbreaks of African swine fever and agricultural damage produced by wild boar in Europe.

Long-Term Determinants of the Seroprevalence of the Hepatitis E Virus in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa).

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen whose main reservoir is suids. Most of the ecological and epidemiological aspects of its sylvatic cycle remain unknown. Thus, in this work, we study the drivers of HEV exposure in the wild boar population of Doñana National Park (DNP, southwest Spain) operating in the medium and long-term (2005-2018). Anti-HEV antibodies are widely distributed throughout the wild boar (46.7 ± 3.8%, 327 out of 700 sampled), showing a statistically significant age-increasing pattern. The temporal pattern displayed important interannual fluctuations. This could be mediated by marked variations in the population control of the wild boar, and subsequent changes in abundance rates, and its interplay with climatic conditions; as wet years together with a low abundance of wild boar led to the lowest seroprevalence. The fact that seroprevalence is high during conditions of high abundance, and not affected by rainfall level, is probably due to the increased interactions among the animals, and possibly, the subsequent higher environmental contamination with HEV particles. The proximity to the marshland (the main water body of the study area) is associated with a higher risk of testing positive, which is probably mediated by the preferential use of this area during the dry season and the favourable environmental conditions for the survival of HEV particles. A deeper understanding of the epidemiology of HEV in host communities deserves future research concerning other susceptible species. Most importantly, wild boar population control remains a challenge at the international level, and an increase of shared pathogen-related conflicts associated with this species is expected, as exemplified by HEV. Therefore, surveillance of wild boar diseases, including integrated population monitoring and sustainable population control programmes, will be essential to control the associated risks.